Borderline personality disorder: Object relations perspective

Borderline personality disorder: Object relations perspective The term Borderline was coined by Stern in 1938 to describe a group of clients that exhibited primitive thinking and defense mechanisms, regressive transferences, destructive behaviors, and intense countertransference reactions (Berzoff, Flanagan, Hertz, 2008; Gunderson, 1984). Today, Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD) is a well known and recognized diagnosis; yet, it is still perceived to be a frustrating, perplexing, and complicated disorder for clients and clinicians to experience, understand, and treat (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984). Clients with BPD can present with a number of different characteristics and symptoms. However, clinicians and theorists have identified key symptomatology associated with the diagnosis of BPD. One of the most prevalent characteristics of BPD is the presence of intense and unstable interpersonal relationships (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). In this realm, individuals with BPD struggle to develop and maintain close an d intimate interpersonal relationships as a result of a terrifying fear of abandonment and lack of object constancy (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). Clients with BPD frequently experience ambivalence in relationships with a desire for attachment coupled with a simultaneous need for distance, and will frequently oscillate between compliant and self-destructive behaviors in interpersonal relationships (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). Clients with BPD are dependent on others to satisfy their needs of closeness and intimacy, and these individuals will often exhibit negative behavior in a desperate attempt to garner attention that ultimately results in the dissolution of relationships further perpetuating their fear of abandonment (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). Additionally, relationship boundaries are often permeable and diffuse resulting in issues associated with engulfment or detachment (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderso n, 1984; Millon, 1992). Individuals with BPD also frequently seek relationships with people that victimize or mistreat them, and reject healthy partners and relationships (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). Clients with BPD are also characterized by an unstable and fragmented sense of self (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). They frequently struggle with establishing a healthy sense of self-esteem, lack ambition, and experience difficulty in setting and attaining goals resulting in low achievement in various aspects of life (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). A number of ego functions are also impaired in individuals with BPD. Clients with BPD have difficulty regulating their affect and exhibit a range of intense and negative emotions including anger, hate, and bitterness (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). Individuals with BPD also tend to lack impulse control resulting in unpredictable, self-destructive, and ego dystonic behaviors including self-mutilation, sexual promiscuity, and substance abuse (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). Clients with BPD also utilize a number of primitive defenses including splittin g, projection, projective identification, denial, primitive idealization, and devaluation (Berzoff et al., 2008, p. 331). Lastly, individuals with BPD may occasionally suffer from psychotic episodes and dissociative experiences despite a relatively stable sense of reality testing (Berzoff et al., 2008; Gunderson, 1984; Millon, 1992). There are numerous theories regarding the etiology of BPD. However, this paper will focus on the significant contributions that object relation theorists William Fairbairn and Otto Kernberg have made regarding the etiology and treatment of BPD. Theoretical Perspectives (Object Relations) Fairbairn: Fairbairn made great contributions to understanding issues of dependency, the use of splitting, and the inexplicable desire to continuously seek out and attach to frustrating and rejecting objects commonly seen in clients with BPD (Celani, 1993). Fairbairns theory places an emphasis on attachment and ego development in accordance with object relations rather than traditional Freudian drive theory (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). Fairbairn posits that personality disorders develop in early childhood, and created a developmental model to explain how an infants interactions and relationships with objects in their early environment can influence dependency and future pathology (Celani, 1993; St. Clair, 2004). Developmental Model Fairbairns model consists of three stages of development: infantile dependence, transitional stage, and mature dependence (Celani, 1993; St. Clair, 2004). Of particular importance to the development of BPD is the transitional stage, which is aligned with Mahlers rapprochement stage, in which a child struggles with the conflict of wanting to separate from the mother while simultaneously desiring to remain connected to the mother (Celani, 1993; St. Clair, 2004). The transitional stage is critical in the developmental process as the mothers rejection of or ability to connect with the child and satisfy their needs will ultimately determine the quality of the object relationship and level of dependency a child has on the mother (Celani, 1993; St. Clair, 2004). Successful completion of this stage results in the ability of a child to integrate positive and negative aspects of the mother, view the mother as a whole rather than partial object that is separate from the child, and develop a hea lthy object relationship with the mother (Celani, 1993; St. Clair, 2004). Clients with BPD are unable to successfully complete this stage of development due to an inability to differentiate from the maternal object resulting in increased dependency (Celani, 1993; St. Clair, 2004). This pathology is later replayed in adult relationships when clients with BPD exhibit a desire to separate from a frustrating object coupled with a conflicting desire to stay connected to or dependent on the frustrating object (Celani, 1993; St. Clair, 2004). Dependency and Attachment Fairbairn described clients with BPD as suffering from severe splits in their ego resulting in a sense of omnipotence, a sense of detachment, and an excessive focus on the inner world (Celani, 1993, p. 6). Fairbairn believed that these personality deficits were a direct result of an unnurturing environment that forced a deprived and frustrated infant to split the mother into part objects in order to preserve the need satisfying aspect of the mother (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). According to Fairbairn, over time the rejected and frustrated child comes to view his mother as a bad object but is hopelessly attached to and dependent on her (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). Fairbairn developed the concept of stubborn attachment to explain why rejected children become increasingly attached to the frustrating object (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). According to Fairbairn, rejected children come to understand that their mothers do not love and value them result ing in feelings of deprivation and inferiority that lead children to become fixated and hopelessly dependent on their mothers as both frustrating and exciting bad objects (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). In essence, Fairbairn asserts that the more neglectful and depriving a mother is, the more a child will cling to the mother in an attempt to win her love and affection (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). This behavior is seen in clients with BPD who repeatedly attach to rejecting and frustrating bad objects continuously replaying the same futile attempt to win the love and nurturance they were deprived of in childhood (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). Fairbairn asserts that the lack of a nurturing and loving environment results in reactive hate in which the child feels they are innately bad and reflect this belief onto future relationships (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). This is evident in the behavior of clients with BPD who often respond to int eractions with objects in their environment with anger and hostility reflecting their own internal feelings of badness (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). The paradox of this behavior is that individuals with BPD are desperately seeking a loving and nurturing relationship, but their hostile and destructive behavior often results in further abandonment and abuse (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). The Moral Defense One of Fairbairns major contributions to the understanding of BPD was his proposal of the Moral Defense Against Bad Objects (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). The moral defense is a childs ego defense against the dilemma of being attached to and dependent on a frustrating object (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). This ego defense allows children to stay attached to a frustrating or rejecting object by repressing memories of abuse or abandonment and the rage associated with those memories, and developing a view that the child himself is the bad object and responsible for and deserving of the behavior of the parent (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). In essence, the child internalizes and represses the negative aspects of the frustrating object allowing the child to view the parent as a good rather than bad object (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). Unfortunately, the moral defense results in a child learning to introject bad objects and reject good object s which ultimately influences the development of BPD (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). Borderline adults continuously seek and return to the exciting aspect of bad objects while rejecting the good and nurturing objects they desperately need (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983). Endopsychic Structure Fairbairns endopsychic structural theory provides an explanation for this paradoxical behavior by focusing on the central role of the ego and the defense of splitting as a result of a childs inability to mask object failures (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). Fairbairn asserts that children must split off the negative aspects of the bad object and focus on the exciting aspects of the bad object in order to survive abuse and deprivation (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). Fairbairn postulates that the endopsychic structure is composed of a central ego and two subegos: the libidinal and antilibidinal egos (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). Each aspect of the ego associates with a different part of an object (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). The antilibidinal ego is home to the rejecting aspect of the bad object, and the libidinal ego houses the exciting aspect of the bad object which pro motes hope for future gratification (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). In the normal developmental process, the central ego connects with a good or ideal object and grows in response to a nurturing environment that contributes to stable ego functioning and a healthy sense of self (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). In a frustrating or rejecting environment a child internalizes the bad object, splits the object internally to reflect the satisfying and unsatisfying components, places these aspects respectively into the libidinal and antilibidinal egos, and aggressively represses these aspects of the ego (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). This ego split allows the child to view a bad object as both frustrating and exciting (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). The libidinal and antilibidinal egos dominate the world of an individual with BPD, and are constantly in conflict with one another (C elani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). This internal conflict explains the sudden shifts in mood that clients with BPD often experience as well as the continuous return to the exciting aspect of the bad object in interpersonal relationships (Celani, 1993; Greenberg Mitchell, 1983; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg: Kernberg created a theory underlying the development of BPD that integrates object relations theory with aspects of Freuds drive theory (Clarkin, Yeomans, Kernberg, 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg asserts that the mind consists of psychological structures (ego, superego, and id) that are formed by internalized object relationships in early development, particularly that of the relationship with the mother (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). This primary object relationship is correlated with the drives of libido and aggression, and lays the foundation for ego development and the establishment of a stable, integrated, and cohesive sense of self and objects in the environment (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg emphasizes the important role affect plays in object relationships, and asserts that affects result from both biological and environmental influences (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). According to Kernberg, BPD pathology results from innate o r genetic pregenital aggression and/or frustrating object relationship experiences in the developmental process (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg asserts that these feelings of intense aggression inhibit a child from integrating positive and negative self and object representations, and results in the use of primitive defense mechanisms to protect and dissociate the positive image of the self and the object from aggressive feelings associated with negative self and object representations (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). In essence, primitive defenses are used to separate contradictory views of the self and object in an attempt to resolve feelings of intense anxiety associated with intrapsychic conflict (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg also draws a correlation between attachment, affect, and the development of BPD by asserting that children with consistently frustrating and distressing self and object experiences in early development have incr eased negative affect or aggression which contributes to intrapsychic conflict (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg also asserts that early failures in attachment contribute to the development of BPD by decreasing an individuals ability to experience and modulate a range of affects and control impulsivity (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Let us now examine Kernbergs concepts and theories associated with the etiology of BPD more closely. Object Relation Units According to Kernberg, objects are internalized as units which include an image or representation of the self, an image or representation of the object, and an affect associated with a drive (libido or aggression) that connects the internalized images of object and self (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). In short, an individual internalizes an object relation unit which represents aspects of the self and other that are connected by an affect of pleasure or frustration (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg referred to these internalized units as object relation dyads that correspond to specific moments of interaction with objects in early development (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg asserts that infants experience and internalize multiple object relation dyads with varying levels of affective intensity throughout the developmental process (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Experiences associated with high affect intensity are generally associat ed with pleasurable or frustrating interactions, such as when a mother satisfies or fails to satisfy a childs needs (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg posits that these high affective experiences are internalized and become part of affect-laden memory structures in the developing psyche (Clarkin et al., 2006, p. 5). Kernberg asserts that an abundance of intense frustrating or negative affective experiences interferes with the development of a stable ego and sense of identity by inhibiting an individuals ability to integrate these experiences in later development (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Thus, the interactions a child has with early object relation dyads significantly affects the development of their personality structure, sense of self, and views of others in their environment, and can lead to BPD pathology in adulthood (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). The Process of Internalization According to Kernberg, an infant progressively internalizes object relation units in early development, which provides the foundation for psychic structures, through the process of introjection, identification, and ego identity (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Introjection is the earliest and first stage of internalization where self and object images are fused and associated with intense and primitive affects (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). If infants are inundated with feelings of frustration and aggression during this stage of internalization it will result in the development of negative self and object representations which adversely affects ego and personality structure development (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Splitting is generally used adaptively in the introjection process to help a child separate positive and negative self and object representations; however, the continued use of splitting in the internalization process can lead to BPD pathology (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Identification is the next level of internalization and encompasses a child learning social roles through interaction with objects in their environment (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). These object relationship interactions are also connected by libidinal or aggressive affective states that influence a childs interpretation of social roles (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). The last step of internalization contributes to the development of a healthy and stable ego that is able to differentiate and organize self and object representations and affects in a coherent manner that supports identity development (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). According to Kernberg, individuals with BPD are able to complete the process of differentiating between images of self and object, but are unable to effectively integrate libidinal and aggressive self and object representations as a result of pregenital aggression (Clarkin et al., 2006; S t. Clair, 2004). Thus, children internalize both positive and negative aspects of early self and object relationships which are activated to varying degrees in future relationships (Clarkin et al., 2006; St. Clair, 2004). Developmental Model Kernberg also proposed a developmental model of psychic structure formation that coincides with the internalization process (St. Clair, 2004). Kernbergs developmental theory consists of five sequential stages (St. Clair, 2004). Of particular importance to the development of BPD are the third and fourth stages which align with Mahlers separation-individuation/rapprochement stages (St. Clair, 2004). The third stage of development occurs when a child is one and a half to three years of age, and constitutes a childs ability to differentiate between positive and negative self and object representations, and the use of splitting to protect positive self and object representations from negative object relation units (St. Clair, 2004). The fourth stage of development occurs between the ages of three to six and is defined by a childs ability to view self and object representations as whole, and to integrate good and bad aspects of the object relation dyads and their associated affects into a realistic view of self and object (St. Clair, 2004). Clients with BPD are generally fixated in these stages of development resulting in an inability to integrate good and bad self and object representations, a primitive use of splitting, a weak and dissociated ego, a lack of object constancy, and the development of a diffuse and unstable identity (St. Clair, 2004). Kernberg believes that the inability to integrate positive and negative object relation units results from overwhelming feelings of frustration and aggression as a result of negative self and object experiences in early development (St. Clair, 2004). Primitive Defenses Kernberg asserts that much of the pathology associated with BPD results from the rigid and excessive use of primitive defense mechanisms to protect and separate the ego and imbued positive self and object representations from intense aggression associated with negative object relation units (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Although many of these defenses are used adaptively in early development, the continued use of such defenses in adulthood as a result of an inability to integrate positive and negative object relation units frequently contributes to the development of BPD (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Splitting is the primary defense used by clients with BPD, and involves separating good and bad object relation units in an attempt to avoid intrapsychic conflict (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Splitting is frequently used in conjunction with idealization and devaluation in clients with BPD (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Idealization complicates the process of splitting by imbuing either the self or external objects with faulty or unrealistic qualities of power and omnipotence (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Idealization is dangerous for clients with BPD because it creates further contradictory experiences for the client when the self or object is unable to fulfill the unrealistic expectations; this phenomenon generally results in an abrupt shift to devaluation or degradation of the self or the previously idealized object (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). The process of splitting and the concomitant use of idealization and devaluation also make the therapeutic experience difficult and emotionally draining as a result of intense transference and countertransference issues (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Clients with BPD also frequently rely on the defenses of projection and projective identification in an attempt to rid themselves of feelings of intense aggression (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Projection occurs when an individual places their own negative feelings onto someone else and views these displaced feelings as emanating from that person as opposed to themselves (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Projective identification takes this process one step further and results in an individual depositing negative feelings into another while simultaneously eliciting those feelings out of that person (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Unfortunately, the use of projection and projective identification often results in a desire to control the person that carries the projected feelings or the development of fear associated with the projectively identified object (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Lastly, the defense of denial a llows individuals with BPD to negate and separate past feelings of aggression and frustration from their present emotional state (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Consistent reliance on these defense mechanisms in adulthood leads to significant difficulties in the realm of interpersonal relationships for clients with BPD (Clarkin et al., 2006; Clarkin Kernberg, 1993). Neurobiology Much of the literature and research on the neurobiological etiology of BPD emphasizes the connection between abuse, trauma, and attachment in early childhood (Applegate Shapiro, 2005; Cozolino, 2010; Teicher, Ito, Glod, Schiffer, Gelbard, 1994). Studies have indicated that nearly 81% of clients diagnosed with BPD have suffered some form of abuse or trauma in their childhood (Teicher et al., 1994). The presence of trauma and/or abuse in early development frequently results in the dysfunction of the limbic system, cortical region, and frontal and temporal lobes of the brain (Cozolino, 2010; Teicher, 1994). The limbic system develops in early infancy and is considered to be the social and emotional aspect of the brain which includes the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, amygdala, and the hippocampus (Applegate Shapiro, 2005; Cozolino, 2010; Teicher et al., 1994). Abuse and trauma often have deleterious affects on neural regulation within the limbic system that adversely affect s emotional and behavioral aspects of personality development (Teicher et al., 1994). For example, an excessive release of norepinephrine in response to stress can impair the hippocampal memory networks resulting in the formation of dissociative symptoms commonly seen in clients with BPD (Teicher et al., 1994). Additionally, trauma often increases kindling, or the repeated stimulation of neurons resulting in increased excitability, in the limbic system which can adversely affect behavioral inhibitions (Teicher et al., 1994). Limbic kindling is associated with the expression of inappropriate and excessive aggression and/or sexual promiscuity frequently seen in clients with BPD (Teicher et al., 1994). The lack of integration between the right and left hemispheres of the brain is also thought to contribute to the formation of intrapsychic conflict and splitting associated with BPD (Teicher et al., 1994). Cozolino postulates that BPD results from negative, frustrating, or frightening interactions with early caregivers resulting in an inability to regulate affect and integrate experiences as a result of insecure attachment (Applegate Shapiro, 2005; Cozolino, 2010). From a neurobiological perspective, insecure attachment occurs when an infant is exposed to negative interactions with the primary caregiver which increases the production of cortisol in the brain and induces feelings of fear and danger within the amygdala; this affective response is then processed by the orbitofrontal cortex and stored as implicit memory in the right hemisphere of the brain (Applegate Shapiro, 2005; Cozolino, 2010). Cozolino (2010) argues that the characteristic fear of abandonment and aggression associated with BPD stems from implicit memories of real or perceived abuse, abandonment, and frustration in early development. Cozolino (2010) also asserts that frequent and abrupt shifts in mood and the oscilla tion between positive and negative views of the self and objects may result from dissociation within the orbitofrontal cortex impairing the brains ability to adequately process information (i.e.: right-left/top-down). Cozolino (2010) further argues that increased levels of cortisol in the brain may impair hippocampal and amygdala functioning resulting in the experience of intense affective states and a reduction in an individuals ability to appropriately modulate affect. Lastly, Cozolino (2010) argues that insecure attachment can result in a reduction in the level of serotonin in the brain increasing the risk of depression, irritability, and decreased positive reinforcement from interpersonal interactions (p. 283). Diversity Sociocultural factors play an integral role in the process of personality development (Miller, 1996; Millon, 2000). From a young age, children are influenced and guided by cultural values, traditions, norms, and expectations that contribute to how they view themselves and the world around them (Miller, 1996; Millon, 2000). Every culture has a unique way of interpreting and addressing issues of anxiety, distress, depression, and emotional upheaval (Miller, 1996; Millon, 2000). Some cultures value these symptoms and view them as a natural means of growth and development, while others perceive the presence of these symptoms as pathology (Miller, 1996; Millon, 2000). Paris contends that many traditional cultures provide protective factors that inhibit the development of BPD and other personality disorders, while others argue that individuals from virtually all cultures suffer from symptoms similar to BPD due to a perceived sense of social failureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦inadequacy, marginality, an d powerlessness (Miller, 1996, p. 194). However, each culture differs in how they view, express, and treat these symptoms; thus, it is imperative that clinicians consider the influence of sociocultural factors on personality development and/or pathology in order to accurately diagnose and treat clients (Berzoff et al., 2008; Miller, 1996; Millon, 2000). The prevalence of BPD and other personality disorders in American culture provides a unique understanding of how sociocultural factors influence personality development (Miller, 1996; Millon, 2000). Millon (2000) argues that American culture is filled with ambiguous and contradictory values, beliefs, and expectations that contribute to identity diffusion and interpersonal conflicts. American culture also places a strong emphasis on achievement and encourages competition in various aspects of life placing intense pressure on individuals to continuously strive for excellence while inadvertently setting the stage for failure and feelings of guilt and shame (Millon, 2000). The presence of conflicting demands and expectations, an emphasis on competition and success, and harsh sociocultural conditions such as poverty, prejudice, and racism in American culture complicate the process of personality development and perpetuate symptomatology commonly associated with BPD including dissociation, intrapsychic conflict, and a fragmented identity (Miller, 1996; Millon, 2000). There is also debate surrounding issues of gender bias in the assessment and diagnosis of personality disorders (Becker, 1997; Berzoff et al., 2008; Widiger, 2000). Many scholars argue that the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM) defines and describes personality disorders in a way that is biased toward traditional male or female characteristics (Becker, 1997; Berzoff et al., 2008; Widiger, 2000). As a result, personality disorders that are associated with dramatic emotional responses, dependency, and masochist qualities such as Histrionic and Borderline are often over diagnosed in women (Becker, 1997; Berzoff et al., 2008; Widiger, 2000). Scholars argue that this bias pathologizes female traits without consideration of the impact that societal, familial, and cultural pressures and external influences have on these behaviors (Becker, 1997; Berzoff et al., 2008; Widiger, 2000). Women are generally socialized to be more in touch with and expressive of their emotions, compliant or submi ssive to others needs, and dependent or reliant on others to varying degrees (Becker, 1997; Berzoff et al., 2008; Widiger, 2000). Yet, these very characteristics can be viewed pathologically when they are incorrectly or incongruently expressed in accordance with social and cultural norms and expectations (Becker, 1997; Berzoff et al., 2008). Additionally, the DSM criteria fails to account for the relevance of the psychological distress that many women experience associated with trauma, sexual abuse, domestic violence, and oppression which results in women being frequently misdiagnosed with BPD as opposed to post traumatic stress disorder (Becker, 1997; Berzoff et al., 2008). It is important for clinicians to be aware of gender biases within the DSM, as well as personal gender biases, when assessing pathology in a client, and to ensure that a diagnosis accompanies adequate consideration of the social and cultural norms placed on women as well as the influence trauma, victimization, a nd oppression have on personality development and pathology (Becker, 1997; Berzoff et al., 2008; Widiger, 2000). Treatment Fairbairn: Fairbairns treatment model was designed to address the needs of what he termed dependent borderlines who express an obstinate attachment to frustrating-exciting objects within their environment that perpetuate ego splits and intrapsychic conflict (Celani,

Edp250 Pt 4

Introduction The purpose of this easy is to compare and contrast two art lessons in relation to authentic arts learning and integration. The lessons will be sourced from the internet and both will be examples of using objects in the natural environment to create a painting. The lessons were designed for students in grades two to six. DiscussionAuthentic arts is as noted by Dinham,(2011) arts that incorporates learning involving integration necessitates, making connections across the curriculum between subject areas or disciplines and providing opportunities for students to witness and engage the relationships, transfer their knowledge and apply their learning through these connections. To make this happen there needs to be a move to prepare classroom teachers to become aware of art, and ways of delivering a successful lesson. Smilan and Marzilli miraglia (2009) notes, that â€Å"teachers need clarification about what art integration is and what it entails.We believe that true authen tic art- integrated learning places visual arts content at the centre of teaching and learning (p. 39)†. Meaning every teacher must continue to up skill their own knowledge of art and understands the elements to delivering an authentic art lesson requires(Dinham,2011). Art is more than painting, drawing and play dough; it is not merely a time filler at school, so teacher can have a break, or a bit of fun. Dinham, (2011) suggest that teachers need to understand what art gives their students, and how art provides a connectedness to society and their own identity and meaning.Art provides students the opportunities to problem solve, express their needs and emotion, be creative, try new experience and more importantly teachers need to appreciate authentic arts programmes as a significant importance in the curriculum. Lessons Lesson one demonstrates a well prepared art lesson and in lesson two, many elements of creating an effective authentic arts lesson are missing. Both lesson one and two require students to use natural items found in the environment to create a painting.Both lessons would be suited for students in grades two to six, and comprises elements of authentic arts. Below is a table that show what elements of authentic arts are essential when delivering an arts class. Required characteristics| Example| 1. Has connections across the curriculum| Lessons makes links to other curriculum such as maths, history etc. | 2. Uses understanding of multiple intelligences and different learning styles| Such as Howard Gardner concepts of multiple intelligence. | 3. Is themed and examines the theme in different areas| Such as dinosaurs, outdoor garden, countries. 4. Uses different modes of learning incorporated into different areas| Such as reading, singing, creating, comparing, contrasting, discussing. | 5. Lessons relate to real life tasks, that draw on a range of knowledge and skills across the curriculum| Lesson would encourage students to use prior knowledge of the task at hand. | 6. Learning’s provide opportunity for students to see relationships, transfer and apply learning and make connections across the curriculum| The lesson has been enriched with elements of real life experience and understanding. | 7.Activities are Instrumental and/or intrinsic| Instrumental, lessons that extend beyond the immediate lesson. Intrinsic lessons relates to the learning gained through the lesson Dinham,(2011). | Table is adapted from PowerPoint presentation Integration. Curtin University, (2012). Using this table as a guide the below lessons well be corresponded with the number from the above table showing which part of the lesson address each charatritcs. Lesson one: Retrieved from http://contemporaryartscenter. org/images/lessonplans/mughal-miniatures_natural-beauty. pdfMughal Miniature Paintings: Natural Beauty Grades: 2nd-7th Visual Arts Developed By: Kristen M. Woods Lesson Description: Mughal miniature painting originated during the 16th century in the Mughal Empire which spanned what are now India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan. This art form is marked by careful attention of small detail, lush jewel tones, epic subject matter, and miniature scale. All of the Miniature artists that are participating in the Contemporary Arts Center’s exhibition Realms of Intimacy have studied at the National College of Arts (NCA) in Lahore, Pakistan.The NCA is renowned for its program dedicated to the centuriesold tradition of Mughal miniature painting which flourished from 1526 to 1857. The extremely selective school takes only a dozen of its accepted students to pursue the intensive major of miniature painting. This major at the NCA mimics a traditional eight year apprenticeship in two years of schooling. The meticulous technique begins with the posture of the students. The students are required to be seated on the floor for hours a day, hold their papers close to their eyes and brace their painting arms against their bod y.Their posture is essential to mastering the tiny brushstrokes needed to create pieces with such fine details. They spend their first year and a half copying historical works and learning to make their own tools. Only in the final half year are they allowed to explore their own creative devices. There is an extreme mental discipline that goes along with every aspect of being a miniature painter. The style is based on old traditions. One brush is still composed of a single squirrel hair. Mussel shells are used as mixing bowls for their organic paints.These natural paints are made from raw materials like vegetables, fruits, oil, soil, lime, indigo and lapis lazuli and on occasion eggs, gold powder, and silver foil. Through this program students must master ultra-fine figure drawing and brushwork, tea staining of page borders and burnishing of paper surfaces; all essential to practices that were used centuries ago. For this project, students will explore natural materials that can be used to dye paper and make paints then use their homemade materials to make their own versions of Mughal miniature paintings Objectives: ? Use problem solving to figure out natural materials they can use and combine to make paints and also dye paper Learn about the process that Mughal miniature painters go through when creating a piece Create their own composition based on Mughal miniature paintings Materials and Resources: Watercolor paper Tea, coffee, and cranberry juice Lard, Butter, Solid and liquid vegetable oil Spices, mustard, dirt, grass, fruits and vegetables, and other natural materials that can stain Paint brushes Small containers with lids (paint storage)Aprons/paint shirts Links and Books on natural paint mixing and Mughal Miniatures; http://www. hyoomik. com/images/egg. html http://www. sairawasim. com/ http://www. ambreenbutt. com/web/home. php http://www. ambreenbutt. com/web/works. php Whiles, Virginia. (2010). Art and Polemic in Pakistan: Cultural Politics a nd Tradition in Contemporary Miniature Painting. Edwards, Lynn. (2003). The Natural Paint Book. Critical Questions: How are cultural practices and traditions passed down and continued over time? Why are they important? Is process important in relation to product? What if miniaturist painters used synthetic materials? Would it change the look of the work? The Emotion? Activities: Preliminary Discussion: Discuss process with students; how artists begin a piece as opposed to showing them the finished product first. Then look through some images of contemporary Mughal Miniaturist paintings by Ambreen Butt and Saira Wasim whom still use tea staining and hand mixed pigments from natural materials. Discuss briefly the imagery and subject used in the works and the meanings behind them.With older students you may be able to get them to discuss some of the political satire seen in Saira Wasim’s work Art Activity: Start the project by dying paper. Using tea, coffee, or even fruit jui ce; have students dip a piece of watercolor paper into a large container full of the liquid of their choosing. Leave the paper in the liquid for at least 15 minutes and check on how well the liquid is dying the paper (don’t leave the paper in for too long because it will start disintegrating). Once the paper has a nice color all around, take it out and leave it to dry for about 24 hours. Next, have students mix their paints. Find some things either outside or maybe in the refrigerator that can stain. Things like grass, dirt, berries, flowers, mustard, and spices would work well. Have students use lard, solid or liquid vegetable oil, or butter to grind and mix their natural materials together making a thick paint. Have each student make at least three different color paints. They may share paints when it’s time to use them. Have students use a paint brush with their homemade paints to create their own miniature painting on their dyed paper. This project is more about p rocess and nderstanding materials so the composition can be very simple especially with younger students. You might suggest they do a composition showcasing the natural materials they use to make their materials like flowers, fruit, etc. Assessment: Students have dyed a piece of paper using tea, coffee, or fruit juice Students have mixed their own paints using fat and natural materials Students have used their paints and dyed paper to create their own miniature paintings Lesson two: Retrieved from http://www. kinderart. com/painting/plantdye. shtml PLANT DYE PAINTSGrade: 2-6    †¢    Age: 6-12 †¢Ã‚   Written by: Kim Swanger [Kim is a K-3 art teacher at Lakeview and Central Elementary Schools in Council Bluffs, Iowa. ] | Objectives: Students will learn that plants are a source of natural dyes and paints. This is a good lesson to show how pioneers or early civilizations may have used plant dyes to color cloth. What You Need: * crock pots * beets * spinach or kale * bl ack walnuts in the shell * dry onion skins * paint brushes * paper What You Do: 1. Discuss with the students that before we had synthetic dyes, people had to make their own paints and dyes using plants and other resources available.Show the students the nuts and vegetables you have and ask how the pioneers may have used these materials. 2. The night before the painting lesson, place beets, spinach or kale, walnuts, and onion skins in separate crock pots with enough water to barely cover them. Cook all night. The following morning, the water in each of these pots should have turned into natural dyes. The beet water will be magenta, the onion water will be amber, the spinach or kale water will be a light green and the black walnut water will be brown. 3.Pour a small amount of paint into bowls and ask students to smell them. Discuss which vegetable made which paint. 4. Provide brushes and paper (plain or coloring pages) and permit students to paint using the natural dyes. 5. After the painting experience, ask students what other natural materials might make dyes the pioneers could have used. Experiment with student suggestions. Note: If black walnuts are not available, VERY STRONG coffee or tea makes an adequate brown dye. Berries can also be used to make colorful dyes. Currently, red dye is commonly made from a parasite that lives on cacti.Both lessons are similar in terms of requiring students to use natural objects to create a painting; However a teacher using lesson one, their students would gain a deeper understanding of authentic art, and acquire skills that they can use across curriculum, as it demonstrates modes of learning and teaching strategies which enables each students to expression and understand what is required. It also uses scaffold learning, which enable students to see examples of what they could achieve, but also gives the history and reasoning behind why they are required to do this activity.This enables students to take an educational value from the lesson, rather than doing it just for merely fun (Dinham,2011). Although lesson two also has real world connection and can be intergraded into other curriculums it is its lack of depth to which it can do this that makes it the inferior of the two lessons. Lesson two can link to history whereas lesson one can relate to multiple curriculums, making this a more intergraded lesson to benefit student learning’s (Dinham, 2011).Lesson one has provided more elements of real life experience for students that they can compare contrast between a variety of objects they have used from the environment, from vegetables to plants and so forth. Whereas lesson two only focuses on one element. Both lesson one and two are instrumental meaning that they extend beyond the immediate arts experience (Dinham,2011) but again it would be lesson one that take this experience further as it looks at the impact the lesson has upon students learning as a whole.Overall, lesson two does not tick th e boxes for authentic arts integrated learning in the way that lesson one does. Lesson one provides a real and authentic learning experience that incorpatres connections to other areas of the curriculum, using modes of learning and teaching strategies which encourage and support every learner in the classroom regardless of skill or ability, all essential fact in delivering an authentic arts experience.References Curtin University, (2012). Course Notes. PP2 Integration. Retrieved fromhttps://lms. curtin. edu. au/webapps/portal/frameset. jsp? tab_tab_group_id=_4_1&url=%2Fwebapps%2Fblackboard%2Fexecute%2Flauncher%3Ftype%3DCourse%26id%3D_47595_1%26url%3D Dinham, J. (2011). Delivering authentic arts education. South Melbourne, Victoria: Cengage Learning.

No Child Left behind Policy Review Essay

The No Child Left behind Act, referred to as NCLB was signed into law on January 8th, 2002 during the Bush Administration and was heralded with bipartisan support. It boosted educational spending by the Federal government by approximately 40%. (Carleton University 2008) NCLB’s goal was to attempt to remedy the problem of lack of accountability and school achievement throughout the nation. It was considered a revision of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Educational Act. The aim of the Law is to close the achievement gap and skills between advantaged and disadvantaged students. The government identified a lack of set standards and testing requirements across the country. Some schools were consistently failing to meet the state standards and the students were subjected to that school’s poor performance due to the location of their residence and school boundaries. Parents were left with no choice or alternative nor recourse to transfer their child from a dangerous or poor performing school to a safer or academically successful school. Lack of local and state control over educational funding and programs implemented and used caused inconsistency among school districts throughout the states. Due to budgetary constraints certain schools, usually in disadvantaged areas, fell below the minimum standards with little hope for change. As well, lack of academic accountability on the local and state level was identified as an overwhelming problem that needed to be addressed. The No Child Left behind Law proposes to close the achievement gap between the advantaged and disadvantaged students. Also it aims to target reading skills and gain proficiency by the end of the 3rd grade and for graduates of high school also to reach a certain level of proficiency in all subjects. Another goal of the law is to hire and retain qualified and skilled teachers for the main academic subjects in schools. The population identified and targeted for the No Child Left behind Act is the economically disadvantaged children and parents in certain poor performing and dangerous schools and school districts across the country. This population was impacted favorably in various ways. Through mandatory state wide testing the schools performances were monitored and problematic schools were identified. Additional funding at the local, state and federal levels were allocated for this lackluster schools to supplement more successful learning programs, hire quality and experienced teachers and if the school’s performance doesn’t improve, the parents have the choice to get supplemental tutoring, after school services or transfer to a better school, with transportation provided. The disadvantaged students with limited proficiency in English are identified and given addition help, impacting them positively. The gap between the advantaged and disadvantaged students is projected to narrow. Some of the positives identified of the NCLB Law include steadily increased student test scores since 2002, especially amongst minority students. Higher qualified teachers and professionals are teaching over 90% of the classes in the country and a little less than half a million students have received additional help such as tutoring or been able to transfer to better performing schools. (Carleton University 2008) Possible negative aspects to the No Child Left behind Law exist also. Since states are mandated to test students yearly, some critics claim the teachers are teaching the testing specifics or â€Å"teaching to the test† in order that the children do better. This is not really ensuring that the students thoroughly understand the subject matter. Different state standards have made interpreting the data difficult as well. Another factor that can hinder the success of the NCLB program is the high dropout rate in many states. According to an Alliance for Excellent Education publication, in the United States, every day up to seven thousand students dropout. This is 1. 3 million annually and appears to be an epidemic. These numbers skew the positive results for the NCLB program. This also has a huge impact on many areas in society, such as crime, cycles of welfare, and shortfalls in the economy. If the dropouts of the school year 2009 had indeed graduated high school, they’d earn an addition $355 over their lifetimes. (Education Week 28, no. 34, 2009) Some claim that a very negative factor of the NCLB has been the lack of funds actually received by the states. What they were promised by the government didn’t always materialize. The requirements of No Child Left Behind are extensive. It is implemented by each state annually testing students according to standards they set and adopt. This is required in grades third through eighth each year for the subjects of math and reading. Science is to be tested three times during a student’s career. Each state must comply with determining if a school district and its schools are achieving 100% of students being successful in meeting the standards. Schools are required to have their teachers be highly qualified in the core academic subjects and use scientifically based education programs and proven and tested strategies. Support is given for students who may be in special at risk categories, such as insufficient knowledge of English, homelessness, truancy and etc. The result of each state’s 3rd through 8th grade reading and math testing will be collected, analyzed and recorded carefully. These results are studied at the local, state and federal level and reported accordingly. This will aid educators at each level in identifying the success of the No Child Left behind Law. New goals can be implemented and areas requiring additional attention and help can be addressed. When schools in need of additional improvement are identified then more attention and aid can be properly allocated quickly and efficiently to maximize results and get the school back on track as soon as possible. Also, using a special system with compiled data to track both graduates and dropouts can be shared locally, statewide and at the national level to analyze trends and adjust areas if needed. Thorough state testing with more uniform standards across the nation will result in a greater ability to analyze the success of the NCLB law. Knowing exactly how the schools are performing can result in stronger accountability. The current administration has adjusted some of the original budgets, standards and goals since the original law No Child Left Behind was passed. President Obama hopes to transform the United States into the most competitive workforce and highest number of college graduates in the world by the year 2020. The U. S Department of Education states its mission is: â€Å"It seeks to promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access. † (U. S Dept of Education 2010) References

Children in Blake’s Poetry Essay - 1167 Words

Children in Blake’s Poetry The use of children is a prominent theme in a number of William Blake’s poems. It is apparent in reading such poems as, â€Å"The Lamb,† â€Å"The Little Black Boy,† and â€Å"The Chimney Sweeper,† that Blake sees the world through the eyes of a child and embraces the innocence of the young. Blake’s poem â€Å"The Lamb,† from Songs of Innocence really illustrates the innocence and purity of a young child. The persona in the poem is of a young child. The child questions the lamb as to where he came from and asks, â€Å"Little Lamb who made thee? / Dost thou know who made thee?† (9,10) The child is expecting the Lamb to answer him but it is obvious to the reader that the Lamb can’t talk. When the child receives no†¦show more content†¦He thinks that white children are like angles and black children are black because they are deprived of the light. The mother sits the boy down under a tree and says to him: And we are put on earth a little space, That we may learn to bear the beams of love, And these black bodies and this sun-burnt face Is but a cloud, like a shady grove. (12,15) The mother is trying to console her son here by telling him that he is going to face a difficult life but once he makes it thorough all the struggles, and has learned to bear the heat from the â€Å"beams of love,† God will take him into heaven. The little black boy envisions the day that he and the white boy will be brought to heaven. He says, â€Å"I’ll shade him from the heat til he can bear/ To lean in joy upon our father’s knee.† (25,26) Here the little black boy is saying that he will protect the white boy, and then they will both go to heaven. â€Å"And then I’ll stand and stroke his silver hair, /And be like him, and he will then love me.† (27,28) The little boy is saying that once he is in heaven he will no longer be been by the color of his skin. However, he thinks that he won’t be loved until he is like someone else. Another poem of Blake’s that shows the innocence of children is â€Å"The Chimney Sweeper† from Songs Of Innocence. The persona in this poem is one of a young chimneysweeper. The chimneysweeper who is speaking is one whoShow MoreRelatedSociological Criticism of William Blake’s Poetry Essay1506 Words   |  7 Pagesthe exploitation of the proletariat by the capitalists. Blake’s ideology and preference towards an equalitarian society quite closely mirror the theories of Karl Marx. Analyzing Blake’s poetry from a Marxist perspective paints a clearer picture of the motives behind Blake’s anger towards social inequality. Poems such as â€Å"The Chimney Sweeper† and â€Å"London† from his poetry collections Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience illustrate Blake’s despair regarding the unjust and unequal society of 18thRead MoreWilliam Wordsworth And The Echoing Green905 Words   |  4 PagesWhile researching about poet s in the Romantic period that created beautiful poetry filled with overflowing powerful feelings designed to capture the reader’s imagination in nature. These Poets often placed the literature they were studying into a documented context by discussing the important events in which the literary works were published (â€Å"I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud† by William Wordsworth and â€Å"The Echoing Green† by William Blake). However these poets both use nature around them as a symbolicRead MoreThe Life and Work of William Blake Essay601 Words   |  3 Pagesin order that we can better understand him. 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